Titian. *Isabella d’Este (Isabella in Black)*. 1536. Oil on Canvas. 102.4 cm x 64.7 cm.

An image can express a vast amount of meaning. This is especially true in sixteenth century Europe. During this period, imagery was rich with symbolism and held meanings that went beyond surface expressions. The sixteenth century marked the peak of the Renaissance in Europe; a time when art, intellect, and beauty dominated the cultural landscape. European nations were beginning to prosper after enduring years of conflict, and expanded trade brought significant wealth to courts and noble households. As individuals grew wealthy, they commissioned portraits of themselves or of their families to showcase their status. Having a portrait created became a mark of prestige. However, portraits represented more than simply wealth, and fashion served as a medium to communicate additional messages. In sixteenth century Europe during the Renaissance, fashion reflected various themes such as political allegiance, wealth, social standing, and religious identity through the medium of portraiture.

By the end of the fifteenth century the Americas, Africa and India were discovered (Boucher 221). Spain and Portugal were at the forefront of these discoveries and Seville and Lisbon were at the center of trade between Europe, Asia and the Americas (Boucher 221). The discovery of these regions significantly influenced trade across Europe. Merchants from all over Europe would travel to Seville and Lisbon to “barter for the produce of exotic countries, carrying home Egyptian cotton, Persian, Iraqui and Syrian silks...” (Boucher, 221). Alongside the discoveries of the new lands, Europe was going through a major political reorganization (Boucher 221). While Italy remained fragmented in city states, the Holy Roman Empire and France expanded their control over territories that once belonged to Burgundy, thus increasing their power (Klein 676). Fred S. Kliner notes in Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, “...by the end of the century (15th), through calculated marriages, military exploits and ambitious territorial expansion, Spain was the dominant European state” (676). As nations in Europe solidified their borders, courts “gave way to fewer, more homogenous states, and costume tended to express their ‘national’ character” (Boucher 219).

The Renaissance was in full bloom, with ideas about beauty evolving since the thirteenth century, and the notion of “ideal beauty” being expressed through literature and visual arts in both Italy and France (Boucher 191. François Boucher observes in 20,000 Years of Fashion, “Greater importance was attached to the perfection of the female body, and indeed, to outward appearance in general. In all the Italian states, men and women translated this search after formal beauty into costume, thus satisfying their taste for elegance, their passion for colour harmony and their aspirations toward a greater distinction” (Boucher 191). By the sixteenth century, the quest to attain the perfection of beauty remained prevalent, leading individuals to enhance themselves by wearing garments made of exotic textiles and adorning themselves with jewels in effort to embody the idealized vision of beauty (Boucher). While Western Europe was masterfully crafting luxury textiles and lace, it was a sign of extreme luxury and wealth to be in possession of items that were excavated or crafted in other foreign lands. These items were usually sprinkled into portraiture which served as a means for individuals to display these embodiments of status along with other intentional messages.

In Eleanora, Queen of France (fig.1) painted by Joos Van Cleve, Eleanora is wearing a brocaded bodice with fur lined sleeves and is adorned with pearls, rubies and other sumptuous stones. Without any context of who this woman is, one understands through her lavish garments,

Figure 1. Joos Van Cleve. *Eleanora of Austria*. 1531-4. Oil on panel, 71.3 x 58.7 cm

she is a woman of incredible wealth and social status. She is, however, conveying another message through her fashion. Eleanor of Austria was a Hapsburg and the sister of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor (The Royal Collection Trust). Eleanora married Francis I as a peace deal after his defeat of Charles V at the Battle of Pavia (The Royal Collection Trust). This was the second marriage of both Eleanora and Francis I.

Typically, when a woman becomes Queen of another nation, she has been prepared throughout her whole life to renounce her previous upbringing and embrace the customs and fashions of her new country. However, this is not the case with the new Queen of France. While the bodice of her dress has a slight rise in the center which is typical of French style, Eleanora maintained elements of her Spanish style of clothing despite being the new Queen of France (De Young); Eleanora “maintained elements of her Spanish style of clothing as a deliberate and politically motivated attempt to preserve her Hapsburg identity at the French court. In her portrait by Van Cleve, the hairstyle and shape of the fur sleeves can be considered particularly Spanish” (De Young qtd. Reynolds). The fashion in Eleanora, Queen of France does not just serve to simply showcase her status but to also convey a significant political message.

In the portrait of Eleanor of Toledo with Her Son Giovanni (fig.2) painted by Bronzino, Eleanora’s husband Cosimo I de’ Medici commissioned this dynastic portrait of his wife, the mother to his heirs (Klein 661). This is another painting, where at face value, the woman being featured with her son are of obvious superb wealth and status. Eleanor is richly adorned with pearl necklaces, earrings and a pearled snood (hairpiece). She is wearing a robe woven in silk brocade with repeated motifs of pinecones and pomegranate which symbolize resurrection and regeneration in Christian tradition (Uffizi Gallery). These symbols are to represent The Duchess’ fertility. To further enhance a Christian narrative reference, the background of the portrait was painted in

Figure 2. Angnolo di Cosimo (Bronzino). *Eleanor of Toledo and Her Son Giovanni. 1*545. Oil on Panel,115 x 96 cm

lapis lazuli blue, a hue that was traditionally associated with the Virgin Mary’s robe (Uffizi Gallery). Bronzino also lightened the background around the Duchess’ head which created a halo like frame to create a tie between Eleanor and her son Giovanni and the Madonna and Christ Child (Klein 661). Pearl symbolism can take on many meanings, however, in the context of this painting, the subject who is lavishly adorned with pearls, is a wife and a mother; the pearls likely represent purity, faithfulness and fidelity. This expertly painted portrait conveys strong messaging through fashion that Eleanor of Toledo was a faithful, fertile, good Christian wife and mother.

Just as trends in fashion came and went for women, the same applied for men. In the sixteenth century, there was an emphasis on men’s fashion. It was important for men to be portrayed as strong, serious and composed and how they were fashioned helped them attain these ideals. This can be seen in the Titian’s portrait of Phillip II (fig. 3). When Titian painted Philip II, he was still a prince and had not yet inherited the role as King of Spain from his father, the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. In Philip’s portrait, the Prince is shown wearing black armor decorated with gold engravings. He sports a ruffled collar that reaches up to his chin, framing his face. His legs are covered in white hose with his cod piece prominently displayed. In the portrait Philip II looks distinguished and austere; gripping a sword with his ringed fingers while his other arm extends toward his helmet, which rests on a table draped in luxurious crimson velvet.

Armor in this era was a representation of honor and respect (De Young). Cod pieces were often embellished in portraiture in effort to prove the subjects’ manhood, while hose was a way of displaying a man’s activity level by highlighting the muscularity of his legs due to his exertion (De Young). Collectively, these elements give way to the message that Philip II was a man of honor, dignity and was very much a man to be respected. This depiction of Philip II by Titian is appropriate, as he later emerged as a highly regarded and tactile military leader.

Figure 3. Titian. *Phillip II.*1551. Oil on Canvas, 193 x 111 cm.

The primary emphasis of portraits was on the upper class and royalty, while representations of the working lower class were infrequent. When the lower class did appear in paintings, their attire lacked the strong symbolism found in the portraits of Eleanora, Queen of France (fig.1), and Eleanor of Toledo with Her Son Giovanni (fig.2); the working lower class were not strongly emphasized on their own, they were painted into portraits to aid in the communication of a greater narrative. An example of this can be observed in Pieter Aertsen’s painting, A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms (fig.4). A summary of the painting’s meaning is, “The objects in the meat stall are sources of food (nourishment for the human body). The depiction of the Holy Family giving alms (donations) to people in need represents a symbolic type of food (nourishment for the human soul)” (North Carolina Art Museum). This painting is entrenched in a greater religious message. The lower class is shown in the very back of the portrait, receiving the Virgin’s alms and they look to be in migration. They are shown wearing loose fitting, plain coloured clothes which is a stark difference from the pomp and embellishment showcased in figures 1-3. There is no messaging being conveyed here about the lower class, aside from their presence in this painting being used to convey a greater message.

Figure 4. Pieter Aertsen. A *Meat stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms* 1551. Oil on Panel. 115.6 x 66 1⁄2 cm

In Sofonisba Anguissola’s painting, The Chess Game (fig.5), a figure from the lower class stands out more prominently than in Aeersten’s, A Meat stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms (fig.4). In Anguissola’s painting, “This painting shows the artist’s three sisters (Lucia, Europa, and Minerva) playing chess—an intellectual pursuit with their governess looking over them” (Smart History). The Anguissola sisters are playing chess outside, with the chessboard resting on a table with a richly ornamented red, green and yellow cloth over it. Anguissola’s sisters are dressed in luxuriously embroidered silks with their hair styled in plaits and embellished with pearls and gems. Two of the younger sisters wear a strand of precious stones around their neck while the eldest sister, who gazes directly at the viewer, has a multistrand gold necklace on. The garments of the Anguissola sisters clearly indicate their noble lineage; in contrast, the governess is positioned at the edge of the painting, with most of her figure extending beyond the frame. She is dressed in a white bonnet and what appears to be a linen white smock. She is distinctively a prop in this painting, just as the chessboard is. These two props convey that the Anguissola sisters are sophisticated, intellectual young ladies and are of a proper, noble upbringing that enables them to have a governess. The only theme the governess conveys in this portrait is the theme of her superiors’ noble status.

Figure 5. Sofinisba Anguissola. *The Chess Game (Portrait of the Artist’s Sisters Playing Chess)*.1555. Oil on Canvas, 72x97 cm

It is important to note that the Reformation took place in the sixteenth century and up until the seventeenth century. As a result, genre painting would become very popular in the Northern Europe, where scenes of the ordinary and portraiture of the working-lower class were depicted in their everyday life (Metropolitan Museum of Art). Although these paintings did not communicate messages through its subjects’ clothing, they hold historical significance as they provide insight into the lives and garments of the class majority who were not part of the bourgeoisie or aristocracy.

The sixteenth century in Europe during the Renaissance played a crucial role in shaping history for the next few hundred years to come. The impact that the discovery of the New World had on all the riches that would flow into Europe cannot be emphasized enough. Precious gems and metals such as gold, silver, emeralds, diamonds and opals were extensively mined in the New World and sent back to Europe; vibrant pigments that were made from tree bark, plants and insects were exploited to dye silks in exotic hues that no one had ever seen. These raw resources, along with other treasures from newly discovered lands, contributed to the immense wealth reflected in the portraiture of the Renaissance period. The use of these materials allowed for the creation of garments and accessories to serve to communicate powerful messages regarding political allegiance, wealth, social status, and religious identity through portraiture.

Works Cited

Boucher, François. “The Sixteenth Century.” 20,000 Years of Fashion: The History of Costume and Personal Adornment, Harry N. Abrams Inc, New York, NY, 1987, pp. 219–226.

De Young, Justine. “1530-1539.” Fashion History FIT NYC, 22 June 2019, fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1530-1539/.

Edelstein, Bruce, and Patrizia Naldini. “Portrait of Eleonora Di Toledo with Her Son Giovanni, Agnolo Bronzino.” Uffizi Galleries, 3 Apr. 2024, www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/eleonora-di- toledo#video.

“Joos van Cleve (d. 1540/41) - Eleanora of Austria, Queen of France (1498-1558).” Royal Collection Trust, www.rct.uk/collection/403369/eleanora-of-austria-queen-of-france-1498- 1558.

Kliner, Fred S. “Renaissance and Mannerism in Cinquecento Italy.” Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, D ed., vol. 15th, Cengage Learning, Boston, MA, 2016, pp. 661–676. Renaissance and Baroque.

Meagher, Jennifer. “Genre Painting in Northern Europe.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1 Apr. 2008, www.metmuseum.org/essays/genre-painting-in-northern-europe.

“A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms .” NCMALearn, learn.ncartmuseum.org/artwork/a-meat-stall-with-the-holy-family-giving-alms/.

Statements Conveyed Through Fashion in 16th Century Renaissance Portraiture